Abstract

Background: U.S. gambling debates often center on legal status, but advertising is a distinct policy lever. Methods: Study 1 links quarterly state-level gambling advertising outlays across paid media (2014–2023) to Google Trends indices for 116 problem-gambling help-seeking queries across 41 states (1,640 state-quarters). Study 2 combines surveys with passive digital traces from 419 exposure-eligible mobile-platform users. Results: Higher state-level ad spend, but not sports-betting legal status, was associated with greater help-seeking search interest, and this association strengthened over time. Platform-specific gambling-ad exposure on Facebook, TikTok, and X was associated with gambler status, gambling frequency, and the probability of any observed gambling-site visit. Clean gambling ads were also associated with higher 24-hour odds of subsequent gambling touchpoints, especially web visits; among gamblers, ad-triggered touchpoints were associated with problem-gambling scores more consistently than raw clean ad volume. Conclusions: Convergent state-level and individual-level evidence links gambling advertising with engagement and harm-related indicators, while the observational designs do not identify causal effects. The findings support stronger restrictions on advertising volume, placement, inducements, and targeting.

Keywords

gambling advertising; gambling marketing; sports-betting legal status; problem gambling; digital trace data

How to Cite

Vargo, C. J., Hopp, T., & Gangadharbatla, H. (in press). Gambling advertising and problem gambling in the United States: Multi-level evidence beyond sports-betting legal status. Policy & Internet.

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Version and Rights

This is the author-accepted manuscript (accepted September 1, 2026).